Author: network

Towards a Fruitful Concept of Radicalization: A Synthesis

In this essay, the author seeks a definition of “radicalization” that can be operationalized, which is necessary but a challenge in itself for a few reasons.

The term has been around for many years, and has recently been used in work on extremism, fundamentalism, conspiracism, fanaticism, terrorism, and counter-terrorism, but in the face of its so widespread use and objections that have been presented against it, the author wonders about its exact meaning and current legitimacy of use.

A conception of radicalization that combines the four main approaches in the literature is defended, specifically referring to the monist and pluralist, as well as the absolutist and relativist ones. A conceptual analysis is used, case studies and “reflective equilibrium”.
The result is a comprehensive theoretical argument proposed by the author, a synthesis that aims to reduce apparent conflicting ideas around the notion.

Learn more about this essay here: https://doi.org/10.1080/14782804.2023.2185594

Reference

Peels, R. (2024). Towards a fruitful concept of radicalisation: a synthesis. Journal of Contemporary European Studies, 32(3), 610–624

2023-03-01
Hate Speech in the Internet Context: Unpacking the Roles of Internet Penetration, Online Legal Regulation, and Online Opinion Polarization from a Transnational Perspective

In this study, the dynamics of online hate speech are examined through the analysis of a panel dataset covering 167 countries over 19 years, drawn from the V-Dem project.

The relationships between key Internet context indicators and online hate speech is explored, in order to better understand how the phenomenon can be addressed at a global scale.

Findings show that what the authors call “Internet penetration” is positively associated with online hate speech, supporting the idea that the technological affordances of the Internet can facilitate the expression of hateful content. Online legal regulation is negatively related to online hate speech, not significantly moderating the relationship between Internet penetration and hate speech, highlighting tensions in the effectiveness of legal approaches. On another hand, online opinion polarization is positively associated with online hate speech and significantly strengthens the relationship between Internet penetration and hate speech, suggesting that polarized opinion environments intensify hate speech and intergroup conflict.

The study concludes by offering a discussion of the theoretical contributions of these findings and their implications for policy aimed at reducing online hate speech worldwide.

Learn more about this study here: https://doi.org/10.1177/02666669221148487

Reference

Liu, Z., Luo, C., & Lu, J. (2024). Hate speech in the Internet context: Unpacking the roles of Internet penetration, online legal regulation, and online opinion polarization from a transnational perspective. Information Development, 40(4), 533–549

2023-01-04
Resilience Against Radicalization and Extremism in Schools: Development of a Psychometric Scale
Noticing how practitioners, policymakers, and researchers alike have argued that the school environment can be both a risk and resilience factor for radicalization and extremism among youth, and how little research has tested this directly, the authors of this study proposed the development of a scale to measure resilience against radicalization and extremism in schools, with a focus on factors that strengthen social cohesion.

A cultural and community psychological approach was used, and data were collected from 334 pupils in mostly urban areas in Norway, with 233 participants retained for analysis. Exploratory factor analysis identified three dimensions of school resilience:
- the perception that the school treats pupils equally no matter their social backgrounds;
- the perception of the school and its employees as attentive and proactive in meeting pupils’ anger resulting from social and political issues;
- the presence of mutual respect.
Regression analyses show that perceived equality predicted lower extremist intentions and radicalization, as well as reduced levels of several extremism risk factors, including anomie, symbolic and realistic threats, and relative deprivation. Mutual respect showed no significant effects, while school attentiveness was positively associated with some risk factors, suggesting it may reflect a response to existing problems.

Learn more about this study: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.980180

Reference

Eldor, D. S., Lindholm, K., Chavez, M. H., Vassanyi, S., Badiane, M. O. I., Yaldizli, K., Frøysa, P., Haugestad, C. A. P., & Kunst, J. R. (2022). Resilience against radicalization and extremism in schools: Development of a psychometric scale. Frontiers in psychology, 13, 980180
2022-11-10
Towards a Definition of Hate Speech—With a Focus on Online Contexts

This review addresses the ongoing challenges faced by legislators and digital platforms in defining and regulating hate speech online.

Despite increased attention to the issue, questions surrounding the definition of hate speech remain unresolved, raising concerns about both theoretical clarity and practical applicability. For this reason, the paper focuses on three central questions: the main challenges involved in defining hate speech, the possible alternatives to existing definitions, and the relationship between the scope of a definition and its operationalization in online contexts.

By tracing regulatory and definitional efforts across legal, paralegal, and technology platform settings, the review identifies four main modes of defining hate speech: teleological, pure consequentialist, formal, and consensus or relativist approaches.

The authors highlight that, although hate speech has long been the focus of legal and ethical debate, both its theoretical definition and its regulation remain elusive. Existing definitions are often vague or internally inconsistent, with no universally accepted framework emerging from legal theory, jurisprudence, or academic research. This lack of consensus is further complicated by new ethical and communicative challenges posed by digital and social media environments.

Learn more about this review here: https://doi.org/10.1177/01968599221124309

Reference

Hietanen, M., & Eddebo, J. (2022). Towards a Definition of Hate Speech—With a Focus on Online Contexts. Journal of Communication Inquiry, 47(4), 440-458

2022-10-05
Youths as Targets: Factors of Online Hate Speech Victimization among Adolescents and Young Adults

In this study, the victimization of adolescents and young adults through online hate speech was investigated, a phenomenon that can cause severe psychological harm during critical developmental stages.

Drawing on criminology’s routine activity theory, the research investigates factors that help explain why young people become targets of online hate speech.It is empirically based on a national, quota-based quantitative online survey representative of adolescent and young adult internet users (N = 1,180).

Data analysis identifies six latent profiles of young targets, characterized by overall high or low levels of online hate speech victimization, as well as victimization related to gender, migration background, religion, and political engagement on behalf of the queer community.

Concluding results show that relative subjective deprivation, political participation, and lower levels of digital media literacy are positively associated with overall victimization through online hate speech. At the same time, members of specific social groups and politically engaged youths are more likely to be targeted.

Learn more about this study here: https://doi.org/10.1093/jcmc/zmac012

Reference

Obermaier, M., & Schmuck, D. (2022). Youths as targets: Factors of online hate speech victimization among adolescents and young adults. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 27(4)

2022-07-22
Understanding Social Media Literacy: A Systematic Review of the Concept and Its Competences

Social Media Literacy – As an emerging concept that remains underdeveloped in the literature, it is presented as a relevant framework for understanding how individuals interact with digital platforms.

Through a systematic review, the authors aimed to descriptively analyze the main definitions and competences associated with social media literacy.

To achieve this, a literature search was conducted in the Web of Science, PubMed, and Scopus databases, covering publications between 2010 and 2021 and limited to scientific articles in English and Spanish, with a total of 15 studies selected after applying inclusion and exclusion criteria.

Findings indicate that social media literacy builds on traditional media literacy while integrating the specific characteristics and implications of digital platforms. It is closely linked to the development of cognitive competences, with critical thinking playing a central role, alongside socio-emotional and technical competences shaped by social context.

Authors also highlight the influence of social, cultural, economic, and political contexts, as well as the distinct cultures of different platforms, in shaping users’ experiences and interactions on social media.

Learn more about this review here: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148807

Reference

Polanco-Levicán, K., & Salvo-Garrido, S. (2022). Understanding Social Media Literacy: A Systematic Review of the Concept and Its Competences. International journal of environmental research and public health, 19(14), 8807

2022-07-22
Is Radicalization a Family Issue? A Systematic Review of Family‐Related Risk and Protective Factors, Consequences, and Interventions Against Radicalization

A systematic review investigated the role of family-related risk and protective factors in radicalization, an area where evidence remains fragmented despite the recognized importance of family contexts in antisocial behaviors. It also considered the potential impact of radicalization on families and the effectiveness of family-focused interventions.

Based on a comprehensive search of academic and gray literature, the review includes 33 quantitative studies examining family-related risk and protective factors for radicalization, covering data from more than 148,000 adolescents and adults across diverse geographic contexts. Meta-analyses were also conducted where possible, on factors such as parental ethnic socialization, extremist family members, family conflict, socioeconomic status, family size, and family commitment.

Results indicate that parental ethnic socialization, having extremist family members, and family conflict are aspects associated with higher levels of radicalization, while higher socioeconomic status, larger family size, and stronger family commitment are associated with lower levels of radicalization.

However, causal relationships could not be established, overall risk of bias was high, and no studies were identified on the impact of radicalization on families or on family-based interventions.

The authors conclude that, despite these limitations, policies and practices should aim to reduce family-related risk factors and strengthen protective factors. The urgent need for the design and evaluation of family-focused interventions is emphasized, as well as further research on the effects of radicalization on families and longitudinal studies on family-related risk and protective factors.

Learn more about this review here: https://doi.org/10.1002/cl2.1266

Reference

Zych, I., & Nasaescu, E. (2022). Is radicalization a family issue? A systematic review of family-related risk and protective factors, consequences, and interventions against radicalization. Campbell systematic reviews, 18(3), e1266

2022-07-21
A Systematic Review on Hate Speech among Children and Adolescents: Definitions, Prevalence, and Overlap with Related Phenomena

This systematic review examined the current state of research on the involvement of young people in hate speech, an area the authors affirm that remains relatively underexplored.

Two main issues make its focus: the prevalence of hate speech among children and adolescents, including the definitions used to assess prevalence, and the theoretical and empirical overlap between hate speech and related concepts.

Guided by the Cochrane approach, the review includes studies reporting real-life experiences of hate speech and providing empirical prevalence data for samples aged 5 to 21 years. An electronic search across ERIC, SocInfo, PsycInfo, and Psyndex identified 1,850 publications, of which 18 publications based on 10 studies met the inclusion criteria. Most studies relied on quantitative methods and focused on adolescent samples, with no studies examining younger children.

Results show that exposure to hate speech was more frequent than victimization or perpetration, empirical evidence of overlap between hate speech and bullying was also identified, while definitions and assessment instruments varied considerably across studies.

The authors conclude by outlining various implications for practice, policy, and future research, and proposing the following definition of hate speech:

“Hate speech is a derogatory expression (e.g., words, posts, text messages, images, videos) about people (directly or vicariously) on the basis of assigned group characteristics (e.g., ethnicity, nationality, gender, sexual orientation, disability, religion). Hate speech is based on an intention to harm and it has the potential to cause harm on multiple different levels (e.g., individual, communal, societal).”

Learn more about this review here: https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380221108070

Reference

Kansok-Dusche, J., Ballaschk, C., Krause, N., Zeißig, A., Seemann-Herz, L., Wachs, S., & Bilz, L. (2022). A Systematic Review on Hate Speech among Children and Adolescents: Definitions, Prevalence, and Overlap with Related Phenomena. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 24(4), 2598-2615

2022-06-22
A Snapshot of Digital Literacy

This literature review has the purpose of analyzing the impact of digital literacy and its evolving nature on individuals’ daily lives.

It explores digital literacy frameworks, approaches to digital literacy education, as well as the relationship between digital literacy and critical thinking, while also addressing emerging and future challenges in digital contexts, providing insight into digital literacy from the perspectives of global citizenship, critical thinking, and rapidly advancing technologies.

Drawing on a qualitative review of recent literature, the authors reflect on current research to identify key trends in digital literacy.

Analysis indicates a growing focus on digital literacy over time, with different organizations and institutions developing their own frameworks to support and implement digital literacy initiatives. The review also shows that digital literacy development often begins within the family at an early age and continues throughout life as part of a broader lifelong learning process.

Moreover, it is discussed how engagement with online resources—particularly social media—contributes to the development of digital literacy skills, while at the same time requiring strong critical thinking abilities to evaluate and filter information. Issues such as information suppression are highlighted as important concerns, underscoring the increasing significance of digital literacy for future generations. As digital technologies continue to advance, the scope of digital literacy is expected to expand further, including competencies related to artificial intelligence.

Learn more about this review here: https://doi.org/10.1108/LHTN-12-2021-0095?urlappend=%3Futm_source%3Dresearchgate.net%26utm_medium%3Darticle

Reference

Tinmaz H, Fanea-Ivanovici M, Baber H (2023), “A snapshot of digital literacy”. Library Hi Tech News, Vol. 40 No. 1 pp. 20–23

2022-04-26
Untangling Media Literacy, Information Literacy, and Digital Literacy: A Systematic Meta-Review of Core Concepts in Media Education
This systematic meta-review of scientific literature addresses the concepts of media literacy, information literacy, and digital literacy, examining how these three forms of literacy are defined and discussed.

Texts were retrieved in two stages. The first text extraction was carried out in November 2015, and a second extraction took place in March 2019, a method that allowed for tracking the evolution of scientific literature over this period. In order to be selected, texts needed to address literacy concepts, propose definitions for these concepts, and discuss how they relate to competing or complementary terms.

Through an analysis of the corpus, four trends within scientific literature were identified as problematic:
- a significant increase in the number of concepts pertaining to the concept of literacy between 2000 and 2019;
- a lack of consensual definitions for these concepts;
- limited interdisciplinarity;
- and the development of concepts and “integrative” frameworks with the aim of connecting and organizing the various literacies.
In short, it highlights increasing conceptual complexity, heterogeneous perspectives, and a degree of theoretical disorganization that contributes to ongoing difficulties in operationalizing these literacies in research, concluding that research on media, information, and digital literacies is affected by this conceptual ambiguity, resulting in difficulties in translating theory into educational practice.

Learn more about this review here: https://digitalcommons.uri.edu/jmle-preprints/20

Reference

Wuyckens, G., Landry, N., & Fastrez, P. (2021). Untangling media literacy, information literacy, and digital literacy: a systematic meta-review of core concepts in media education. Journal of Media Literacy Education Pre-Prints
2021-12-15