IM Cultural Institute

Category: Research

  • Can We Counteract Hate? Effects of Online Hate Speech and Counter Speech on the Perception of Social Groups

    Can We Counteract Hate? Effects of Online Hate Speech and Counter Speech on the Perception of Social Groups

    Considering the fact that hate speech can increase stereotyped thinking and social distancing in a society, while – according to the authors of this study – there is still a lack of variety in the social groups under study and research into possible solutions to the problem, the study of the effects of hate speech is proposed, specifically against Chinese people and transgender people, while investigating if counter speech can offset the detrimental effects of hate speech.

    For this purpose, a pre-registered online experiment was carried out, with a 2 × 3 between-subject design, varying the attacked group (Chinese people/transgender people) and the type of comments (neutral/hate speech/hate speech and counter speech) for an Austrian sample (n = 1285).

    Findings in this case actually seemed to reveal no effect of hate speech on the dependent variables, indicating that citizens might not be as vulnerable to hate speech, but further study is necessary.

    However, counter speech has a polarizing effect: attitudinal gaps and differences for social distancing increase between left-wing and right-wing participants if hate speech is countered.

    Learn more about this study here: https://doi.org/10.1177/00936502231201091

    Reference

    Schäfer, S., Rebasso, I., Boyer, M. M., & Planitzer, A. M. (2024). Can We Counteract Hate? Effects of Online Hate Speech and Counter Speech on the Perception of Social Groups. Communication Research, 51(5), 553–579

  • Understanding and Appraising ‘Hate Speech’

    Understanding and Appraising ‘Hate Speech’

    According to the author of this study, although hate speech has become a matter of international concern, permeating institutional and lay discussions alike, what it means to refer to a linguistic act as ‘hate speech’ remains unclear.

    In light of such evidence, focusing on lay understandings of hate speech, the study explores the relationship between hate speech and hate, the distinction between hate speech and offensive speech, considering also how hate speech is defined in the UK Public Order Act 1986.

    Using a corpus-based discourse analysis, 255 hate speech–related news articles were analyzed, alongside data from the General English Web 2020 corpus.

    Hate speech is found to be a complex and multifaceted phenomenon, because hate is a central component, but it is not sufficient on its own to classify an act as hate speech, and elements such as threats, denigration of the targets based on a protected characteristic (age, race, religion, sex, sexual orientation, disability), the potential to cause harm and the intent to stir up hatred, are also essential in distinguishing hate speech and offense.

    Learn more about this study here: https://doi.org/10.1075/jlac.00082.vil

    Reference

    Vilar-Lluch, S. (2023). Understanding and appraising ‘hate speech.’ Journal of Language Aggression and Conflict, 11(2), 279–306

  • Policy vs Reality: Comparing the Policies of Social Media Sites and Users’ Experiences, in the Context of Exposure to Extremist Content

    Policy vs Reality: Comparing the Policies of Social Media Sites and Users’ Experiences, in the Context of Exposure to Extremist Content

    While social media enables communication and the sharing of opinions among like-minded users, it also presents risks related to its use for harmful and potentially illegal means.

    The study aims to explore the community guidelines and policies of major social media platforms concerning extremist material and to compare these policies with users’ reported experiences.

    To assess user exposure, the study pilots a new measurement tool, the Online Extremism Exposure Scale (OECE), which captures both exposure to extremist communication and hate speech online.

    Findings show that users report varying levels of exposure, with respondents indicating that extremist material appears during nearly half of their daily time spent on social media. The results also suggest potential shortcomings in social media platforms’ efforts to limit exposure to extremist content.

    Learn more about this study here: https://doi.org/10.1080/19434472.2023.2195466

    Reference

    Williams, T. J. V., Tzani, C., Gavin, H., & Ioannou, M. (2025). Policy vs reality: Comparing the policies of social media sites and users’ experiences, in the context of exposure to extremist content. Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression, 17(1), 110–127

  • Media and Information Literacy and Critical Thinking: A Systematic Review

    Media and Information Literacy and Critical Thinking: A Systematic Review

    In a context marked by the spread of misinformation and the growing influence of media—particularly social media—on certain social groups, the authors highlight the need to analyze how media and information literacy in the formation of citizens contributes to the development of critical thinking.

    This effort is based on a systematic review of scientific literature addressing the intersection of critical thinking and media and information literacy. Using the Core Collection of the Web of Science and Scopus databases, the authors analyzed a sample of 65 articles selected through predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria.

    It was concluded that integrating media and information literacy into educational contexts contributes to strengthening individuals’ critical abilities, supporting the development of more informed and critically engaged citizens.

    Learn more about this review here: https://www.doi.org/10.4185/RLCS-2023-1939

    Reference

    López-González, H., Sosa, L., Sánchez, L. y Faure-Carvallo, A. (2023). Media and Information
    Literacy and Critical Thinking: A Systematic Review. Revista Latina de Comunicación Social, 81,
    399-423

  • Towards a Fruitful Concept of Radicalization: A Synthesis

    Towards a Fruitful Concept of Radicalization: A Synthesis

    In this essay, the author seeks a definition of “radicalization” that can be operationalized, which is necessary but a challenge in itself for a few reasons.

    The term has been around for many years, and has recently been used in work on extremism, fundamentalism, conspiracism, fanaticism, terrorism, and counter-terrorism, but in the face of its so widespread use and objections that have been presented against it, the author wonders about its exact meaning and current legitimacy of use.

    A conception of radicalization that combines the four main approaches in the literature is defended, specifically referring to the monist and pluralist, as well as the absolutist and relativist ones. A conceptual analysis is used, case studies and “reflective equilibrium”.
    The result is a comprehensive theoretical argument proposed by the author, a synthesis that aims to reduce apparent conflicting ideas around the notion.

    Learn more about this essay here: https://doi.org/10.1080/14782804.2023.2185594

    Reference

    Peels, R. (2024). Towards a fruitful concept of radicalisation: a synthesis. Journal of Contemporary European Studies, 32(3), 610–624

  • Hate Speech in the Internet Context: Unpacking the Roles of Internet Penetration, Online Legal Regulation, and Online Opinion Polarization from a Transnational Perspective

    Hate Speech in the Internet Context: Unpacking the Roles of Internet Penetration, Online Legal Regulation, and Online Opinion Polarization from a Transnational Perspective

    In this study, the dynamics of online hate speech are examined through the analysis of a panel dataset covering 167 countries over 19 years, drawn from the V-Dem project.

    The relationships between key Internet context indicators and online hate speech is explored, in order to better understand how the phenomenon can be addressed at a global scale.

    Findings show that what the authors call “Internet penetration” is positively associated with online hate speech, supporting the idea that the technological affordances of the Internet can facilitate the expression of hateful content. Online legal regulation is negatively related to online hate speech, not significantly moderating the relationship between Internet penetration and hate speech, highlighting tensions in the effectiveness of legal approaches. On another hand, online opinion polarization is positively associated with online hate speech and significantly strengthens the relationship between Internet penetration and hate speech, suggesting that polarized opinion environments intensify hate speech and intergroup conflict.

    The study concludes by offering a discussion of the theoretical contributions of these findings and their implications for policy aimed at reducing online hate speech worldwide.

    Learn more about this study here: https://doi.org/10.1177/02666669221148487

    Reference

    Liu, Z., Luo, C., & Lu, J. (2024). Hate speech in the Internet context: Unpacking the roles of Internet penetration, online legal regulation, and online opinion polarization from a transnational perspective. Information Development, 40(4), 533–549

  • Resilience Against Radicalization and Extremism in Schools: Development of a Psychometric Scale

    Resilience Against Radicalization and Extremism in Schools: Development of a Psychometric Scale

    Noticing how practitioners, policymakers, and researchers alike have argued that the school environment can be both a risk and resilience factor for radicalization and extremism among youth, and how little research has tested this directly, the authors of this study proposed the development of a scale to measure resilience against radicalization and extremism in schools, with a focus on factors that strengthen social cohesion.

    A cultural and community psychological approach was used, and data were collected from 334 pupils in mostly urban areas in Norway, with 233 participants retained for analysis. Exploratory factor analysis identified three dimensions of school resilience:

    • the perception that the school treats pupils equally no matter their social backgrounds;
    • the perception of the school and its employees as attentive and proactive in meeting pupils’ anger resulting from social and political issues;
    • the presence of mutual respect.

    Regression analyses show that perceived equality predicted lower extremist intentions and radicalization, as well as reduced levels of several extremism risk factors, including anomie, symbolic and realistic threats, and relative deprivation. Mutual respect showed no significant effects, while school attentiveness was positively associated with some risk factors, suggesting it may reflect a response to existing problems.

    Learn more about this study: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.980180

    Reference

    Eldor, D. S., Lindholm, K., Chavez, M. H., Vassanyi, S., Badiane, M. O. I., Yaldizli, K., Frøysa, P., Haugestad, C. A. P., & Kunst, J. R. (2022). Resilience against radicalization and extremism in schools: Development of a psychometric scale. Frontiers in psychology, 13, 980180

  • Towards a Definition of Hate Speech—With a Focus on Online Contexts

    Towards a Definition of Hate Speech—With a Focus on Online Contexts

    This review addresses the ongoing challenges faced by legislators and digital platforms in defining and regulating hate speech online.

    Despite increased attention to the issue, questions surrounding the definition of hate speech remain unresolved, raising concerns about both theoretical clarity and practical applicability. For this reason, the paper focuses on three central questions: the main challenges involved in defining hate speech, the possible alternatives to existing definitions, and the relationship between the scope of a definition and its operationalization in online contexts.

    By tracing regulatory and definitional efforts across legal, paralegal, and technology platform settings, the review identifies four main modes of defining hate speech: teleological, pure consequentialist, formal, and consensus or relativist approaches.

    The authors highlight that, although hate speech has long been the focus of legal and ethical debate, both its theoretical definition and its regulation remain elusive. Existing definitions are often vague or internally inconsistent, with no universally accepted framework emerging from legal theory, jurisprudence, or academic research. This lack of consensus is further complicated by new ethical and communicative challenges posed by digital and social media environments.

    Learn more about this review here: https://doi.org/10.1177/01968599221124309

    Reference

    Hietanen, M., & Eddebo, J. (2022). Towards a Definition of Hate Speech—With a Focus on Online Contexts. Journal of Communication Inquiry, 47(4), 440-458

  • Youths as Targets: Factors of Online Hate Speech Victimization among Adolescents and Young Adults

    Youths as Targets: Factors of Online Hate Speech Victimization among Adolescents and Young Adults

    In this study, the victimization of adolescents and young adults through online hate speech was investigated, a phenomenon that can cause severe psychological harm during critical developmental stages.

    Drawing on criminology’s routine activity theory, the research investigates factors that help explain why young people become targets of online hate speech.It is empirically based on a national, quota-based quantitative online survey representative of adolescent and young adult internet users (N = 1,180).

    Data analysis identifies six latent profiles of young targets, characterized by overall high or low levels of online hate speech victimization, as well as victimization related to gender, migration background, religion, and political engagement on behalf of the queer community.

    Concluding results show that relative subjective deprivation, political participation, and lower levels of digital media literacy are positively associated with overall victimization through online hate speech. At the same time, members of specific social groups and politically engaged youths are more likely to be targeted.

    Learn more about this study here: https://doi.org/10.1093/jcmc/zmac012

    Reference

    Obermaier, M., & Schmuck, D. (2022). Youths as targets: Factors of online hate speech victimization among adolescents and young adults. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 27(4)

  • Understanding Social Media Literacy: A Systematic Review of the Concept and Its Competences

    Understanding Social Media Literacy: A Systematic Review of the Concept and Its Competences

    Social Media Literacy – As an emerging concept that remains underdeveloped in the literature, it is presented as a relevant framework for understanding how individuals interact with digital platforms.

    Through a systematic review, the authors aimed to descriptively analyze the main definitions and competences associated with social media literacy.

    To achieve this, a literature search was conducted in the Web of Science, PubMed, and Scopus databases, covering publications between 2010 and 2021 and limited to scientific articles in English and Spanish, with a total of 15 studies selected after applying inclusion and exclusion criteria.

    Findings indicate that social media literacy builds on traditional media literacy while integrating the specific characteristics and implications of digital platforms. It is closely linked to the development of cognitive competences, with critical thinking playing a central role, alongside socio-emotional and technical competences shaped by social context.

    Authors also highlight the influence of social, cultural, economic, and political contexts, as well as the distinct cultures of different platforms, in shaping users’ experiences and interactions on social media.

    Learn more about this review here: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148807

    Reference

    Polanco-Levicán, K., & Salvo-Garrido, S. (2022). Understanding Social Media Literacy: A Systematic Review of the Concept and Its Competences. International journal of environmental research and public health, 19(14), 8807