IM Cultural Institute

Tag: Hate Speech

  • Hate Speech on Social Media: A Systemic Narrative Review of Political Science Contributions

    Hate Speech on Social Media: A Systemic Narrative Review of Political Science Contributions

    In light of evidence showing that many young people are frequently exposed to hateful content on social media, in this systematic narrative review the analysis of political implications of online hate speech is proposed. It addresses three key questions: the main drivers of hate speech on social media, its political consequences, and the strategies proposed in political science to counter these dynamics.

    Based on an analysis of 79 articles from political science and international relations, the author finds that online hate is linked to factors such as social media platform policies, regulatory frameworks, perceived threats to in-group identity, far-right and populist rhetoric, politically significant events like elections, traditional media narratives, post-truth dynamics, and historical animosities.

    The literature also indicates that hate speech contributes to the normalization of discriminatory behavior, silences opposing voices, and mobilizes organized hate.

    To address these effects, it is found that political science research emphasizes the role of online deterrence mechanisms, counter-speech, allyship, and digital literacy as key strategies for combating hate in the social media era.

    Learn more about this review here: https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci14100610

    Reference

    Kentmen-Cin, C. (2025). Hate Speech on Social Media: A Systemic Narrative Review of Political Science Contributions. Social Sciences, 14(10), 610

  • The Perpetration of On- and Offline Hate Speech among Secondary School Students

    The Perpetration of On- and Offline Hate Speech among Secondary School Students

    This study analyzes the relationship between witnessing and perpetrating hate speech, both online and offline.

    The research was empirically based on data from a purpose-designed questionnaire completed by 571 secondary school students in Almería, Spain, and employs statistical analyses, including binary logistic regression and chi-square tests, to examine these relationships.

    Research results indicate a clear escalation of violence and a transfer between online and in-person hate speech. The influence of close social environments is evident, such as violence within schools. Students who experience hate speech in either environment are significantly more likely to go on to perpetrate hate speech themselves.

    The authors conclude that both online and offline hate speech perpetration are strongly associated with prior exposure to hate speech, particularly having witnessed or suffered in-person hate speech, having encountered hate speech online, and most notably, having been victimized by hate speech online.

    Learn more about this study here: https://doi.org/10.3389/fhumd.2025.1632091

    Reference

    Cáceres, J. M. B., Martínez, P. R., Espinosa, J. J. S., & Joya, L. M. (2025). The perpetration of on- and offline hate speech among secondary school students. Frontiers in Human Dynamics, 7

  • Exploring Hate Speech Dynamics: The Emotional, Linguistic, and Thematic Impact on Social Media Users

    Exploring Hate Speech Dynamics: The Emotional, Linguistic, and Thematic Impact on Social Media Users

    In this study, online hate speech as a growing concern was examined, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic, when anti-Asian sentiment increased across social media platforms.

    While the prevalence of hateful content has been widely documented, the causal mechanisms underlying emotional and behavioral changes among users who post such content remain insufficiently explored.

    The study addresses this gap by investigating the causal relationship between engaging in hateful content and subsequent changes in linguistic and emotional expression on social media.

    Using a dataset of 6,002 Twitter/X users, the authors apply causal inference methods, including propensity score matching, alongside advanced topic modeling techniques. This approach allows for a comparison between users who post hateful content and a matched group of non-hateful users.

    Findings show that users who engage in hateful posting display significantly higher levels of anger, anxiety, and negative emotions, as well as increased use of third-person pronouns. Moral outrage and profanity peak during hateful posts and decline over time, though they remain higher than in non-hateful content.

    The analysis also reveals that hateful posts are more interconnected, address a wider range of topics, and are more similar to one another, indicating lower cohesion within individual posts but greater cohesion across posts overall.

    Learn more about this study here: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ipm.2025.104079

    Reference

    Ghenai, A., Noorian, Z., Moradisani, H., Abadeh, P., Erentzen, C., & Zarrinkalam, F. (2025). Exploring hate speech dynamics: The emotional, linguistic, and thematic impact on social media users. Information Processing & Management, 62(3), 104079

  • Teacher Education, Diversity, and the Prevention of Hate Speech: Ethical and Political Foundations for Inclusive Citizenship

    Teacher Education, Diversity, and the Prevention of Hate Speech: Ethical and Political Foundations for Inclusive Citizenship

    This study examines hate speech in educational contexts, focusing on initial teacher training, in the context of Chile.

    Considering how hate speech is conceptualized as a form of expression that promotes violence and exclusion – and the amplifying role of social media -, drawing on the theories of Levinas, Arendt, and Žižek, the study emphasizes the importance of citizenship education in fostering inclusive and democratic educational environments.

    Using a quantitative, descriptive, and correlational design, the research is based on a survey of history pedagogy students at Chilean universities.

    The analysis shows that 51% of participants believe that teacher training programs should explicitly address hate speech, and 70% expect institutional support from the Ministry of Education. Additionally, a moderate positive correlation is identified between social media use and the spread of hate speech.

    Although students acknowledge hate speech as a significant issue, the findings also reveal ongoing resistance to incorporating hate speech and diversity-related content into teacher education curricula.

    A need for public policies is emphasized, which will integrate diversity, human rights, and critical digital literacy into teacher training in order to prevent discrimination and promote ethical and inclusive educational practices.

    Learn more about this study here: https://doi.org/10.3390/soc15050139

    Reference

    Marolla-Gajardo, J., & Riquelme Plaza, I. (2025). Teacher Education, Diversity, and the Prevention of Hate Speech: Ethical and Political Foundations for Inclusive Citizenship. Societies, 15(5)

  • Improving Public Literacy in Hate Speech Cases on Social Media as an Effort to Mitigate Legal and Social Impacts

    Improving Public Literacy in Hate Speech Cases on Social Media as an Effort to Mitigate Legal and Social Impacts

    Following on the evidence that hate speech and the threats posed by it and its recurrence has not received enough attention, the authors have conducted a study of hate speech in social media, focusing in particular on insults that may constitute criminal speech and on the mindset of those who produce such content.

    Using a qualitative approach, the study analyzes a defamation case based on the final decision published on the Supreme Court website. Pragmatic analysis is applied to interpret the intentions underlying the offender’s speech.

    The findings identify several forms of insults, including accusations, curses, ridicule, and combinations of accusations and curses. These forms involve violations of pragmatic maxims, namely the maxims of quality, wisdom, and agreement.

    From a legal perspective, such speech can be prosecuted if it is done intentionally, contains accusations, is disseminated to the public, contains swear words, and defames the victim.

    Concluding results point to the need for greater awareness among social media users of the risks and consequences of insulting speech, emphasizing the importance of literacy around insult and defamation cases.

    Learn more about this study here: https://doi.org/10.17507/tpls.1504.10

    Reference

    Arianto, A. K., Santosa, R., & Yustanto, H. (2025). Improving Public Literacy in Hate Speech Cases on Social Media as an Effort to Mitigate Legal and Social Impacts. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 15(4), 1120–1129

  • Empowerment Is Key? How Perceived Political and Critical Digital Media Literacy Explain Direct and Indirect Bystander Intervention in Online Hate Speech

    Empowerment Is Key? How Perceived Political and Critical Digital Media Literacy Explain Direct and Indirect Bystander Intervention in Online Hate Speech

    With hate speech being so widespread in digital media and capable of harming people and fueling recurring hostile discourse, the study of the factors that shape bystander intervention in response to online hate speech is crucial.

    Specifically, there is still a need to understand how perceived political and digital media literacy are related to the frequency of various forms of online bystander intervention, such as counter-speech or reporting. This is what this study seeks to do.

    Based on a national online survey of German citizens (N = 2,691), the analysis focuses on individuals with prior experience in responding to online incivilities (n = 672). The study examines how perceived levels of political and digital media literacy are associated with private and public, direct and indirect forms of intervention, such as counter-speech or reporting harmful content.

    Results indicate that a sense of empowerment in dealing with digital media content is associated with more frequent direct and public interventions, including the use of counter-speech against online hate.

    Learn more about this study here: https://doi.org/10.1177/20563051251325598

    Reference

    Obermaier, M., Schmid, U. K., & Rieger, D. (2025). Empowerment Is Key? How Perceived Political and Critical Digital Media Literacy Explain Direct and Indirect Bystander Intervention in Online Hate Speech. Social Media and Society, 11(1)

  • AI to Counteract Hate Speech

    AI to Counteract Hate Speech

    Proposal: Using AI Tools to Counteract Hate Speech and Hate Crimes

    Implementation: 2025 to 2027

    Call: CERV-2024-CHAR-LITI – Promote civil society organisations’ awareness of, capacity building and implementation of the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights

    Topic: CERV-2024-CHAR-LITI-SPEECH

    Type of Action: CERV-PJG – CERV Project Grants

    Proposed Budget: 610 244,50€

    Keywords: hate speech, disinformation, counteracting, protecting european values

    Objective: Given the growing scale of hate speech in public spaces, especially online, this project aims to comprehensively examine the phenomenon of hate speech in various socio-cultural contexts and develop a tool using generative artificial intelligence to identify and report hate speech in each language. The project focuses on the analysis of hate speech, development of innovative technological solutions, as well as social education in the field of recognizing and counteracting hate speech. The aim of the project is to strengthen the protection of EU values by providing an effective tool supporting the fight against hate speech, which will enable citizens to report cases of hate to the appropriate law enforcement authorities.

    Partners:

    • Instytut Dyskursu I Dialogu
    • IM Cultural Institute
    • Grupa Tipmedia Spolka Z Ograniczona Odpowiedzialnoscia
    • Fondatsiya Savremenna Plevenska Mediya
    • Fundación Centro De Estudos Eurorrexiónais Galicia Norte De Portugal
    • Asociacion Consortium Local-Global Coglobal
    • Action For The Civil Society
    • Interaktion – Verein Für Ein Interkulturelles Zusammenleben
  • Associations Between Teachers’ Beliefs and their Perception of Hate Speech in School: A Study in Germany and Switzerland

    Associations Between Teachers’ Beliefs and their Perception of Hate Speech in School: A Study in Germany and Switzerland

    Teachers’ perceptions of hate speech in schools is an issue that should be increasingly relevant, given the prevalence of hate speech among adolescents and the need for educational responses. While teachers are expected to address hate speech as part of their professional role, little is known about the beliefs that shape their early perceptions and intervention decisions, which can be crucial in the quality of their approach.

    For this reason, this study investigates the associations between teachers’ social dominance orientation, pluralist attitudes, and their perception of hate speech in school.

    Empirical data was collected through a self-report survey of 471 secondary school teachers from Germany and Switzerland, and matched with data from 3,560 students in grades 7 to 9 to control for students’ perceptions of hate speech. Fixed-effects multilevel regression analyses were conducted, accounting for demographic variables and student perceptions.

    Study results show that teachers perceive offline hate speech as more frequent than online hate speech. Contrary to expectations, higher social dominance orientation was positively associated with both offline and online hate speech perception. As hypothesized, teachers’ pluralist attitudes were also positively linked to their perception of hate speech in both contexts.

    Nonetheless, the study concludes by emphasizing the need for further research on how teachers’ beliefs, attitudes, and perceptions of hate speech relate to other dimensions of professional competence in educational settings.

    Learn more about this study here: https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2024.1432013

    Reference

    Kansok-Dusche, J., Wettstein, A., Fischer, S. M., Wachs, S., & Bilz, L. (2024). Associations between teachers’ beliefs and their perception of hate speech in school: A study in Germany and Switzerland. Frontiers in Education, 9

  • From Hate Speech to HateLess. The Effectiveness of a Prevention Program on Adolescents’ Online Hate Speech Involvement

    From Hate Speech to HateLess. The Effectiveness of a Prevention Program on Adolescents’ Online Hate Speech Involvement

    In this study, the impact of online hate speech on adolescents was examined, and the effectiveness of HateLess – Together Against Hatred, a school-based intervention designed to reduce hate speech engagement and promote counter-speech.

    Using a quasi-experimental design, the research involved 820 adolescents aged 12 to 16 from 11 German schools, divided into an intervention group that participated in a one-week anti-hate speech program and a control group. Multilevel mediation analyses were used to assess the program’s effects.

    It was shown that participation in the program significantly reduced online hate speech perpetration and victimization, while increasing countering behaviors. These effects were partly mediated by increases in empathy, which were associated with lower perpetration and higher counter-speech, and by enhanced self-efficacy, which was linked to reduced victimization and greater countering of hate speech.

    Overall, HateLess appears to be a promising approach for reducing online hate speech and fostering more respectful online interactions among adolescents.

    Learn more about this study here: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2024.108250

    Reference

    Wachs, S., Wright, M. F., & Gámez-Guadix, M. (2024). From hate speech to HateLess. The effectiveness of a prevention program on adolescents’ online hate speech involvement. Computers in Human Behavior, 157

  • News Literacy and Online News Between Egyptian and Spanish Youth: Fake News, Hate Speech and Trust in the Media

    News Literacy and Online News Between Egyptian and Spanish Youth: Fake News, Hate Speech and Trust in the Media

    An exploratory study reflects on whether citizens can be considered “responsible” in their online news behavior when exposed to harmful content, fake news, and hate speech.

    It aims to position news literacy as a mediating factor in fostering civic responsibility by investigating its role in improving young people’s online news experiences and preparing them to deal with harmful content.

    News literacy is conceptualized as a multi-structural construct composed of motivation, knowledge, and skills. Using a mixed-methods approach, focus group discussions and survey data were combined to examine youths’ online news experiences and assess their levels of news literacy. Youth samples from Egypt and Spain were the empirical basis of the research, allowing for a comparative analysis.

    Results reveal a positive correlation between news literacy and the ability to identify fake news and hate speech, higher engagement with news, greater concern for content accuracy before sharing, and stronger motivation to seek news.

    At the same time, respondents from both countries expressed negative perceptions of professional news media, citing concerns that news organizations are not adequately fulfilling their role as it should be.

    Learn more about this study here: https://doi.org/10.3916/C74-2023-06

    Reference

    Samy-Tayie, S., Tejedor, S., & Pulido, C. (2023). News literacy and online news between Egyptian and Spanish youth: Fake news, hate speech and trust in the media. Comunicar, 30(74), 69–81